The Rise and Fall and Rise of Authoritarianism

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“True individual freedom cannot exist without economic security and independence. People who are hungry and out of a job are the stuff of which dictatorships are made.”

- Franklin D. Roosevelt

When one thinks of authoritarianism, the most prominent figures that come to mind are Nazi German leader Adolf Hitler, Italian Duce Benito Mussolini, Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, and Chairman Mao of China, among others. The list goes on, with various authoritarian leaders driven by different motives and ideologies. However, in this article, I will not discuss the types of authoritarian leaders. Instead, I will address the issue of how different factors have fuelled the rise of authoritarian leaders due to economic insecurity and poor governance. This is important because humanity's main failure is the failure to learn from the historical factors that have caused the rise of authoritarianism. Therefore, it is crucial that we learn from history to prevent its repetition.

Authoritarianism is an ideology that limits individual freedom in exchange for ensuring strict obedience and stability. It is one of the most complex and significant subjects in modern history. The 21st century has witnessed an authoritarian upheaval reminiscent of the 1920s and 1930s. The rise of authoritarianism is fuelled by the failure of ruling governments to provide stability for their populations, which creates an opportunity for authoritarian leaders to pursue their own goals. Additionally, authoritarianism is closely connected with nationalism. For instance, in the 21st century, Western interventions abroad have provided opportunities for authoritarian leaders to portray Liberalism as a threat while positioning Authoritarianism as a saviour. Furthermore, the hypocrisy of Western Liberal Democracies regarding human rights has inadvertently strengthened authoritarian regimes. They use the hypocrisy of Liberal Democracies as a means to justify their own actions, presenting themselves as seekers of truth.

Hence, authoritarianism follows a three-stage process: rise, fall, and another rise.

Stage 1: RISE

Italy

At the end of World War One in November 1918, the Treaty of Versailles played a major role in determining the future of nations in Europe, and Italy was no exception. Despite being a victor in the war, Italy received only half of what it had requested. This, combined with social and economic insecurity resulting from WWI, laid the groundwork for the rise of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini. Mussolini capitalised on nationalism and promised stability to garner support for his regime, which gained popularity as the Liberal Government in Italy failed to address the country's challenges. As Mussolini ascended to power, Italy transformed into a one-party state, and opposition was suppressed. However, unlike other totalitarian regimes such as Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany and Joseph Stalin's Soviet Union, Mussolini's regime in the 1920s did not employ widespread terror.

Nevertheless, in the 1930s, Mussolini shifted his focus toward Fascist principles of expansionism and racial supremacy. His expansionist ambitions aimed to restore Italy to the grandeur of the Roman Empire by conquering the Mediterranean and acquiring colonies in Africa. As a result, Mussolini initiated military interventions in Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia) in 1935, Albania in 1939, and became involved in the Spanish Civil War from 1936 to 1939.

Germany

Germany faced harsh consequences from the Treaty of Versailles, including the loss of territory and colonies, war reparations, and limitations on the army to 100,000 men. Many Germans, including future dictator Adolf Hitler, were enraged by this diktat as it stripped Germany of its status as a great power. The country grappled with economic problems such as hyperinflation caused by war reparations and political turmoil. However, before Germany could suffer a fate similar to Italy's, a glimmer of hope emerged.

German Chancellor and Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann played a crucial role in stabilizing the German currency with the assistance of the 1924 Dawes Plan provided by the United States. This helped Germany enter a period of economic and political stability known as the "golden twenties." During this era, support for radical German political parties, including the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers' Party) and the Communists, decreased.

However, this period came to an end in 1929 with the onset of the Great Depression. Loans from the US ceased due to the Wall Street crash, resulting in severe hyperinflation and a rise in unemployment in Germany. These economic hardships led many Germans to turn to radical political options, as the liberal government failed to effectively address these issues. This presented an opportunity for Hitler and his Nazi party to exploit the crisis to achieve their political goals.

In the 1932 federal elections, Hitler and the Nazis gained support through fervent nationalism and promises of stability, which resonated with many people. This ultimately led to Hitler's rise as the Fuhrer of Germany in January 1933 and resulted in consequences such as the persecution of ethnic minorities, including Jews, the suppression of other political parties, and the militarization of the Rhineland.

Nazi Germany's quest for lebensraum (living space) began with the annexation of Austria through Anschluss on March 12, 1938. They subsequently invaded Czechoslovakia on September 12, 1938, with the consent of Britain and France under the 1938 Munich Agreement. The leaders of these countries, Eduard Daladier of France and Neville Chamberlain of the UK, sought to avoid a war similar to World War I, thus choosing appeasement by giving in to Germany's demands. Germany annexed Sudetenland and partitioned Czechoslovakia with Poland and Hungary. On March 22, 1939, Germany annexed the Memel territory from Lithuania, which Lithuania accepted due to its belief that they were no match for the German military.

Germany's expansionism continued with the invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, sparked by disagreements over the free territory of Danzig, marking the beginning of World War II. In 1940, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway to protect its access to Swedish iron ore. Later that year, Germany occupied Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and France until 1945. An attempt to invade Britain in October 1940 failed due to the skilled defence of the Royal Air Force (RAF). Following this setback, Hitler turned his sights on the Soviet Union, launching Operation Barbarossa on June 22, 1941, with support from Italy, Hungary, Slovakia, Romania, and Finland. For Hitler, this invasion fulfilled his dreams of conquering a nation he considered racially inferior and obtaining suitable land for his Aryan German population. Germany went on to invade Yugoslavia and Greece in 1941 to assist Italy and other Axis allies, including Bulgaria and Hungary, in expanding their territories.

These years witnessed immense suffering and atrocities. In the occupied territories and countries allied with Germany, such as Italy, the Holocaust was carried out, leading to the deportation and persecution of Jews, Romani people, Slavs, Jehovah's Witnesses, homosexuals, and the disabled. Forced labour was also widespread in the territories occupied by Germany during World War II. Additionally, numerous war crimes, including massacres, the murder of non-Aryan soldiers, and mistreatment of prisoners of war (POWs), particularly Soviet prisoners of war, who were considered racially inferior, occurred.

Japan

In the Far East, Japan faced a situation similar to Germany and Italy. Although Japan greatly benefited from the First World War (1914-1918) by acquiring Germany's colonial possessions in the Asia-Pacific region, ongoing discrimination from the West fuelled anger among reactionary forces within the military. During the early 1920s, Japan experienced a period of peace influenced by Shidehara Kijuro, who pursued a policy of internationalism. Under Kijuro's leadership, Japan maintained good relations with China and the United States while signing numerous international agreements. For instance, Japan entered into the 9-Power Treaty, which recognized and respected China's sovereignty, and the Washington Treaty System, which demonstrated Japan's commitment to international cooperation.

However, Japan's vibrant democracy faced several challenges. Firstly, the close ties between politicians and Zaibatsu (big businesses) eroded public support for political parties. The Peace Preservation Law specifically targeted left-wing parties in an attempt to counter left-wing radicalism. Secondly, Shidehara's internationalism faced opposition from factions within the military who believed it undermined Japan's interests. For example, the Washington Treaty System was viewed as an "Anglo-Saxon iron ring" preventing Japan from attaining great power status. Thirdly, the impact of the Great Depression, which began in 1929, was exploited by militarists to undermine liberal policies. The rise of Emperor Hirohito in 1926 marked a revival of the belief in the emperor as a living God, accompanied by a resurgence of nationalism and the promotion of Japan's global destiny. The expansion of Japan's economy came at the expense of rural farmers, who were adversely affected by the importation of rice to meet the growing population's needs. The Great Depression also impacted Japan's prominent export, silk, leading to rising prices and prompting many rural inhabitants to seek better opportunities in the military. The scarcity of raw materials within Japan further fuelled its expansionist ambitions. The government's fragility in dealing with the military resulted in overseas adventures, such as the Kwantung Army's invasion of Manchuria in September 1931 to gain resources. The League of Nations' ineffective response to Japan's actions, which consisted of issuing moral condemnations rather than imposing strict measures, further emboldened Japan's expansion in China. Additionally, Britain and France adopted a lenient approach toward Japan due to their focus on European matters, the Great Depression, and the possibility of an Eastern ally to contain the Communist Soviet Union.

Japan's desire for expansion led to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War on July 7, 1937, triggered by the Marco Polo Bridge incident, where Japanese and Chinese troops clashed. Japan's role in the Second Sino-Japanese War was marked by heinous acts such as the Nanking massacre, the use of chemical weapons, and biological experiments conducted on Chinese prisoners of war. Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe and Emperor Hirohito, leading the militarist government, also sought to expand against the Soviet Union. Border conflicts between Japan and the Soviet Union, as well as their client states Manchukuo and Mongolia, such as the Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939, resulted in a Soviet-Mongolian victory.

Japan was divided between two factions: Kodoha and Tosei-ha. While both factions were expansionist, Tosei-ha advocated for modernization and good relations with the Soviet Union, whereas Kodoha rejected modernization and held vehement anti-communist views against the Soviet Union. The culmination of these factions' power struggles came in October 1941 when Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe was replaced by hardliner militarist Hideki Tojo of the Tosei-ha faction.

Inspired by Germany's victories in Western Europe in 1940 following the Fall of France, Japan aspired to seize Southeast Asian colonies held by European powers. The first conquest was French Indochina, where Japan, with the consent of the Vichy France government, annexed the territory and established military bases. In response to Japan's invasion of Indochina, the United States, under the leadership of Franklin D. Roosevelt, imposed an oil embargo on Japan. This ultimately led to the attack on Pearl Harbour on December 7, 1941, with the complicity of Prime Minister Hideki Tojo. The attack prompted the United States to declare war on Japan, followed by declarations of war from Germany and Italy against the United States.

Subsequently, Japan continued its expansion in Southeast Asia by invading other European colonies such as British Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Australian Papua and New Guinea, the Philippines, British Borneo, Portuguese Timor, and British Burma. Japan also gained an ally in Thailand.

Soviet Union

In the 1917 October Revolution, Russia witnessed the abolition of the monarchy under Tsar Nicholas II and a subsequent civil war between the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, and the Mensheviks, who received support from foreign countries such as the United States, France, the United Kingdom, and Japan due to their concerns about the rise of Communism. However, the Reds emerged victorious in 1922, leading to the establishment of the Soviet Union in December of that same year. Following Lenin's deteriorating health and subsequent death in 1924, a power struggle ensued between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky to determine the next leader.

Lenin had differences with both Trotsky and Stalin regarding certain political and ideological matters. He disagreed with Trotsky's ideas of permanent revolution and criticized Trotsky's preference for a democratic approach to the Bolshevik party. Lenin, on the other hand, believed in a highly centralized and disciplined party structure. Additionally, Trotsky opposed Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP).

Lenin also expressed concerns about Stalin's abuse of power, temperament, and authoritarian tendencies. Lenin and Stalin had significant disagreements on the nationality question. While Lenin advocated for granting autonomy and self-determination to various ethnic groups within the country, Stalin favoured a more centralized approach that suppressed national identities and concentrated power in Moscow.

Following Lenin's death in 1924, Stalin consolidated his power and held the position until 1953. Trotsky, on the other hand, was marginalized, exiled, and eventually assassinated in 1940.

Under Stalin's rule, a cult of personality was established, portraying him as a great leader. However, unlike the dictatorships of Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and Fascist Italy, the Soviet Union aimed to build a future society, while the latter three sought to restore past glory. Despite this distinction, the Soviet Union, under Joseph Stalin, pursued industrialization through Stalin's five-year plans, which aimed to increase industrial and agricultural production through collectivization. Although these plans led to advancements in coal, steel, and other materials, they also had negative consequences. Failure to meet Stalin's production targets resulted in individuals being sent to the Gulags. Additionally, while collectivization played a role in boosting agricultural production and reducing inequality in rural areas, it resulted in severe consequences such as the Holodomor famine in 1932, leading to the deaths of millions of people in Soviet Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and parts of Russia. In 1936-1938, Stalin also conducted a purge of the army, eliminating those he perceived as threats to his ideology or disloyal to him.

Despite these human rights violations, a significant divergence between the Soviet Union and the nations of Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and Fascist Italy was that the Soviet Union was anti-Fascist and rejected expansionism. For instance, when Italy invaded Abyssinia in October 1935 and committed heinous atrocities, including the use of chemical warfare, the Soviet Union, along with Mexico, Spain, the United States, China, and New Zealand, condemned Italy's invasion and subsequent occupation of Abyssinia since 1937. Moreover, the Soviet Union supported the anti-Fascist Republicans in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) by providing diplomatic and military assistance. Whereas Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy supported the Nationalists led by Francisco Franco.

Image source: Communist Crimes

However, the Soviet Union's attitude towards Nazi Germany shifted on August 23, 1939, when they signed the controversial Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. This pact, between two of the largest totalitarian states of the time, outlined plans for the division of Eastern Europe into spheres of influence for the two powers. This decision was influenced by Stalin's desire to restore the Soviet Union to its pre-1918 borders, and it aligned with Hitler's shared values of authoritarianism. The first victim of this expansionist agenda was Poland, invaded by Germany on September 1, 1939, followed by the Soviet Red Army on September 17, 1939, resulting in the partitioning of Poland between the two powers. Subsequently, the Soviet Union attempted to annex Finland on November 30, 1939, but their efforts were thwarted by the skilled Finnish troops. A peace treaty between the Soviet Union and Finland was signed on March 12, 1940, in which Finland had to cede some territories back to the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union also annexed the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) as well as Bukovina and Bessarabia from Romania on June 15, 1940, and July 28, 1940, respectively. After Germany launched Operation Barbarossa against the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, the Soviet Union forged alliances with the United Kingdom and eventually the United States to combat the threat of Fascism. This shift in Soviet foreign policy marked the beginning of the end for Fascism.

The rise of totalitarian regimes in Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, Fascist Italy, and the Soviet Union during the 1920s and 1930s offers important lessons for future generations:

• Economic instability played a crucial role in the emergence of dictatorships in Germany, Japan, and Italy. Liberal governments in these countries failed to address the needs of their populations and provide stability. In the 1920s, Italy experienced significant economic turmoil following the severe impact of World War I on its economy, resulting in a failed state-like situation.

• Authoritarian regimes emerged in Germany and Japan during the Great Depression, which presented an opportunity for political manipulation. These countries used the crisis to pursue their expansionist goals, resonating with the public's desire for solutions during the economic downturn. Franklin D. Roosevelt's quote at the beginning of this article serves as a lesson for Western liberals today, highlighting how economic instability can pave the way for authoritarian regimes when liberal governments fail to offer stability. This, in turn, can lead people to turn to authoritarian options that prioritize stability at the expense of human rights.

• The dangers of nationalism were evident in Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan, and Fascist Italy. Ultra-nationalist sentiments arose due to international decisions that favoured one country over another. Germany and Italy, for example, felt humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles. Combined with ultra-nationalist elements, these sentiments led to the rise of fascist dictators like Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini. In Japan, militarists came to power due to a combination of rural instability and ultra-nationalism fuelled by treaties like the Washington Treaty, which prioritized resources for the Navy.

• The regimes in these countries exhibited varying degrees of totalitarianism, with the state exercising control over public and private life. Dissent was suppressed, individual freedoms were curtailed, and propaganda was used to manipulate public opinion. Concentration of power in the hands of a few leaders without checks and balances resulted in widespread abuse and oppression.

• The failure of democracy is a recurring issue throughout history. While democracy has brought positive outcomes such as freedom of speech, economic growth, and respect for minority rights, it remains fragile. During times of profound instability caused by economic and political factors, a tipping point can be reached where fervent nationalism and the desire for stability outweigh the importance of individual freedoms, leading to the rise of authoritarianism.

• Expansionist and aggressive policies were pursued by Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan, driven by the desire for territorial expansion and dominance. These actions resulted in immense human suffering and loss of life during World War II, including heinous atrocities such as the use of chemical weapons by Italian forces in Abyssinia and the Nanking Massacre perpetrated by the Japanese military in the name of the emperor. These examples illustrate the dangers of unchecked militarism and fervent nationalism.

To prevent the rise of authoritarianism, we can learn from Roosevelt's example of implementing a New Deal economic policy. Although critics argue that it did not adequately address social inequality and economic instability, it had numerous benefits, such as providing jobs for millions affected by the 1929 Wall Street Crash, fostering economic growth, and introducing welfare programs like social security and unemployment insurance. This demonstrates that ruling liberal governments must prioritize stability while upholding the value of individual freedoms to prevent the rise of authoritarian governments.

However, not all dictators during the 1920s and 1930s were malevolent. Some were considered benevolent dictators, focused on prolonging their rule for the benefit of the people. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk of Turkey is a notable example. He led Turkey during the Turkish War of Independence from May 13, 1919, to July 24, 1923, resulting in the establishment of the Turkish Republic. Ataturk developed the ideology of Kemalism, which emphasized the principles of Republicanism, Secularism, Populism, Reformism, Nationalism, and Statism. Under his leadership, women gained the right to vote and participate in the workforce. Ataturk prioritized education, industrialization, and agriculture by establishing new schools and universities, implementing infrastructure projects, and introducing agricultural reforms and modern techniques. He excelled in diplomacy, maintaining good relations with neighbouring countries such as Greece, Iraq, Yugoslavia, and Iran. Ataturk also played a role in establishing the Balkan Pact on February 4, 1934, with Turkey, Greece, Yugoslavia, and Romania as signatories, aimed at mutual defence against potential attacks by Bulgaria or expansionist Italy.

Stage 2: RISE and FALL

The end of World War II witnessed the demise of the three dictators in Germany, Japan, and Italy: Adolf Hitler, Hideki Tojo, and Benito Mussolini, respectively. This marked the establishment of a world order characterized by competition between the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, leading to the onset of the Cold War (1947-1991).

Throughout the Cold War era, authoritarianism experienced a surge, propelled by a range of factors, including independence movements and foreign intervention in the internal affairs of other nations. This surge was primarily driven by ideological differences, as one superpower distrusted governments that advocated either capitalist or socialist ideals.

The rise of authoritarianism was evident in several key events. For instance, Mao Zedong and his Communist party ascended to power in China following their victory in the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalists in October 1949. Additionally, the division of Korea into North Korea and South Korea, each under authoritarian leadership, resulting from the involvement of the United States and the Soviet Union, contributed to this trend. Moreover, decolonization and anti-imperialist movements often advocated for authoritarian governance as a means to safeguard the welfare and interests of newly empowered governments.

Authoritarianism witnessed a significant surge during the Cold War, primarily attributed to foreign intervention in the internal affairs of other nations. Both the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in meddling to safeguard their influence and interests in specific countries. The United States, for example, supported numerous right-wing and anti-communist governments, even if it meant contradicting its own foreign policy ideals of human rights and democracy, all in the name of containing communism. Noam Chomsky argues that the United States maintained a list of "our kinds of guys" during the Cold War.

An illustrative example can be observed in the Congo, where the US backed the anti-communist regime of Mobutu Sese Seko. Mobutu was complicit in the assassination of Congolese independence leader and prime minister Patrice Lumumba on January 17, 1961, and he gained notoriety for his corruption as a kleptocrat. Similarly, in Indonesia, the US supported another "our kind of guy," Suharto, who played a role in purging the country of perceived Communist threats on October 1, 1965. Suharto was also implicated in the mass killings that occurred in Indonesia between 1965 and 1966, all under the guise of containing communism. Like Mobutu, Suharto was also notorious for corruption by embezzling 15-35 million US dollars.

During the Cold War, the United States and its Western allies adopted a lenient approach toward right-wing dictators in Portugal and Spain (Antonio De Oliveira Salazar and Francisco Franco) to curtail the spread of Communism. Throughout this period, the United States and the West extended support to other right-wing and anti-communist dictators, such as Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Alfredo Stroessner of Paraguay, Plaek Phibunsongkhram of Thailand, Rafael Trujillo of the Dominican Republic, Park Chung Hee of South Korea, Georgios Papadopoulos of Greece, and the Apartheid regime in South Africa. They also fostered relationships with Zia-ul Haq of Pakistan, Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam, Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina, the civic-military dictatorship of Uruguay, the military dictatorship of Brazil, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran, Ferdinand Marcos of the Philippines, Jean-Bedel Bokassa of the Central African Republic, Manuel Noriega of Panama, and Jean-Claude Duvalier of Haiti. Additionally, the United States even established connections with Communist or far-left dictators, such as Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, who aimed to maintain positive relations with both the West and the East, and Nicolae Ceausescu of Romania, who reduced Soviet influence in his country despite Romania remaining part of the Warsaw Pact. Moreover, the United States forged alliances with new "our kinds of guys" in China under Mao Zedong, following the commencement of Nixon's détente with China in the 1970s, as well as with the pro-Chinese Communist nation of Democratic Kampuchea (present-day Cambodia) under Pol Pot since the Vietnamese invasion of Kampuchea in 1978. The US provided diplomatic and, to some extent, military support as a means to avenge the humiliating defeat in Vietnam during the Vietnam War (1955-1975).

The Soviet Union played a significant role in fostering authoritarianism through foreign interventions during the Cold War, particularly in its satellite states in Eastern Europe and Afghanistan. After liberating most of Eastern Europe from Nazi occupation during World War II (1939-1945), the Soviet Union established pro-Soviet regimes in countries such as East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, Yugoslavia (until 1948), and Albania (until 1961), paving the way for their occupation. These actions went against the will of the people.

The Soviet Union suppressed rebellions that arose in its satellite states, suppressing the voice of the people. For instance, in 1953, the Soviet Union quelled an uprising in East Germany sparked by protests against poor living conditions. Moreover, the Soviet Union suppressed uprisings in Hungary (1956), Poland (1956 and 1981), Romania (1947-1962), Bulgaria (1944-1960s), and Czechoslovakia (1968) during the 1950s and 1960s, consolidating its control over these countries by installing governments that were more loyal to the Soviet Union. Furthermore, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 was utilized as a means to enforce obedience to the Soviet-backed Communist government in Afghanistan and to assert Soviet influence in Central Asia.

However, nothing lasts forever. The 1970s and 1980s of the Cold War witnessed a decline in authoritarian regimes. For instance, in Portugal, after the death of Antonio de Oliveira Salazar in 1968, he was succeeded by Marcelo Caetano. However, Caetano's rule was overthrown in the Carnation Revolution on April 25, 1974, which led to the establishment of democracy and the end of the Estado Novo in Portugal. In Spain, the death of Franco in 1975 marked the beginning of a process of democratization and openness to the international community, despite protests from pro-Franco groups. Although Mao's death in China in 1976 did not bring an end to authoritarianism, it marked a shift towards a more benevolent dictatorship under Deng Xiaoping's agenda of domestic and international openness. Additionally, foreign military interventions were utilised as means to overthrow authoritarian regimes. For instance, Idi Amin's regime in Uganda was overthrown in 1979 through an invasion by Tanzania's president, Julius Nyerere, in October 1978. Similarly, Pol Pot's regime in Cambodia was overthrown in January 1979 by Vietnam, which had invaded the country in December 1978. In February 1979, the Shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi, was overthrown by the Iranian revolution, leading to the transformation of Iran from a monarchy into an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini.

The 1980s marked a turning point in the struggle against authoritarianism. For example, in 1986, uprisings against the autocratic regimes of Jean-Claude Duvalier in Haiti and Ferdinand Marcos in the Philippines were successful as more people grew tired of living under their corrupt and oppressive rule, longing for a fresh start for their countries. According to Noam Chomsky, the United States started to undergo a shift in its foreign policy during the final years of the Cold War. It began pressuring reactionary anti-communist dictators to improve their human rights record, aligning its actions more closely with its ideals of human rights and democracy. In this context, the US reduced support for Marcos and Duvalier by backing the pro-democracy uprisings in their respective countries, ultimately contributing to their overthrow as they lacked significant backing.

The 1980s also witnessed a wave of democratization in Latin America, with the overthrow of military dictatorships that had been established with foreign support, often from the United States. For example, Efraín Ríos Montt was overthrown in Guatemala in 1983, and that same year, Argentina abolished its military dictatorship with the election of the first democratically elected president, Raúl Alfonsín. In 1984, Uruguay overthrew its civic-military dictatorship and transitioned back to civilian rule under Julio María Sanguinetti. Brazil saw the overthrow of its military dictatorship in 1985, leading to a move towards democratization and the holding of a presidential election that same year. In 1989, the military dictatorships of Alfredo Stroessner in Paraguay and Augusto Pinochet in Chile were overthrown, and democratically elected governments under Andrés Rodríguez and Patricio Aylwin took their place, respectively. Also in 1989, the United States conducted a military invasion of Panama, ousting Manuel Noriega due to President George H.W. Bush's concerns about Noriega's involvement in human rights violations and drug trafficking.

For the grand finale, the 1989 Revolutions marked the overthrow of Communist regimes in Eastern Europe, largely due to Gorbachev's rejection of the Brezhnev doctrine, which had previously interfered in the affairs of the Warsaw Pact nations. The first spark ignited in Poland, where the Solidarity movement conducted peaceful protests against the Communist government, eventually leading to a peaceful overthrow of the government by Lech Walesa and his Solidarity movement. This powerful action quickly spread throughout Hungary, East Germany, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia, resulting in peaceful overthrows of their respective Communist governments. However, in Romania, although the influence of the 1989 Romanian Revolution was felt, leader Nicolae Ceausescu stubbornly refused to heed the protestors' calls for reform, resulting in a violent crackdown by the Securitate. Yet, this repression only served to strengthen the resolve of the protestors, eventually reaching a tipping point when Ceausescu attempted to flee Romania, but his escape plan failed. Consequently, Ceausescu and his wife Elena were put on trial, leading to their execution on December 25, 1989. The overthrow of Ceausescu in Romania stood out as one of the most violent toppling of an authoritarian regime, serving as a poignant warning to other dictators that justice would one day prevail, demanding accountability.

Stage 3: RISE and FALL and RISE

After the conclusion of the Cold War, a new era of ethnic conflicts and the overthrow of authoritarian regimes unfolded. For instance, under Slobodan Milosevic in Yugoslavia, the Yugoslav wars erupted in 1991, characterized by ethnic tensions and wars of independence. These conflicts, including events like the Bosnian Genocide and military intervention in Kosovo, resulted in immense suffering and losses. Milosevic's fervent Serbian nationalism led to the persecution of ethnic minorities such as Croats, Bosnians, and Albanians. In response to Milosevic's actions, NATO conducted a military intervention in Kosovo due to concerns over the persecution of ethnic Albanians. Additionally, the erosion of justice in Serbia eventually led to Milosevic's resignation during the Bulldozer Revolution in October 2000, followed by his trial at The Hague.

Throughout the 1990s, notable authoritarian regime overthrows occurred, including those of Suharto in Indonesia and Mobutu Sese Seko in what is now the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire). Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the end of the Cold War, the United States experienced a significant shift in its foreign policy landscape. As previously mentioned by Noam Chomsky, human rights concerns began to be raised regarding the same dictators that the US had supported during the Cold War in its efforts to contain communism. Concerns over human rights violations prompted the US, Canada, and other Western nations to reduce aid to Mobutu. Eventually, in 1997, Mobutu was overthrown during the First Congo War. In Rwanda, the Tutsi government led by Paul Kagame, which had already put an end to the previous regime responsible for the Rwandan Genocide (1994-1997) against the Tutsi, formed alliances with Tutsi forces in the Congo, as well as other African nations such as Uganda, Burundi, and Angola. Their objective was to counter Mobutu's support for insurgent groups operating in their respective countries. After capturing Kinshasa, Mobutu fled to Morocco, and Laurent Kabila assumed the presidency of the Congo until 2001.

Similarly, in Indonesia, the US reduced support for Suharto, a well-known "our kind of guy," due to concerns over human rights violations, particularly in the Indonesian-occupied East Timor following the Santa Cruz massacre on November 12, 1991. Corruption, including crony capitalism, and the democratic aspirations of the Indonesian people also contributed to the reduced support. In 1997, during the Asian financial crisis, the Indonesian currency, the Rupiah, significantly weakened. The crisis resulted in a rise in unemployment due to corruption, cronyism, and mismanagement of the economy. The student movement in 1998 emerged in response to Suharto's handling of the impact of the financial crisis, which led to violent repression of the movement. However, as the protests grew in strength and international pressure mounted, Suharto resigned on May 21, 1998.

Significantly, the 1990s witnessed the end of apartheid in South Africa after years of protests and armed rebellions against the apartheid regime, particularly led by the African National Congress (ANC), whose leader Nelson Mandela was imprisoned for his anti-apartheid activism. The international condemnation of the apartheid regime through sanctions also contributed to its desire to negotiate and bring an end to apartheid. South African President F.W. de Klerk implemented reforms in the 1990s, including the release of political prisoners, lifting the ban on anti-apartheid organizations, and initiating negotiations with anti-apartheid leaders, including Mandela. The official end of apartheid began with the 1994 general election, in which Mandela won with a majority of votes, becoming the country's first black president. The steps taken to dismantle apartheid in South Africa demonstrate the undeniable power of the people, which can profoundly influence the fate of a government.

However, in Russia, following the collapse of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991, the country transitioned to a more democratic government under President Boris Yeltsin, who rejected communism and advocated for free markets, human rights, freedom of speech, and a free press. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of these policies was hindered by Russia's authoritarian structure, which posed challenges to their implementation. Consequently, many Russians lost faith in democracy, perceiving it as a source of instability. Moreover, the failure of the West to fully embrace Russia as an equal member of the Western family, particularly through interference in Russia's sphere of influence, such as the NATO intervention in Yugoslavia and subsequent NATO expansion in Eastern Europe, exacerbated the rise of reactionary elements within Russia's government. Former US President Richard Nixon urged the US and the West to treat Russia on equal footing in order to prevent the rise of authoritarianism, which could be fuelled by Russian imperialism. The following is an extract from inside Washington.

“Interviewer: Mr president the world has been turned upside down two and a half years since the Berlin Wall came down. A new dynamic has been approaching and also emerging is a new Russia as a great superpower. Yet, this Russia is having trouble getting its feet on the ground so to speak and turning its directions into a capitalist economy a free market. You have made recommendations not only in your book but in your speeches and your recent conference about what the United States should do to help Russia and you’ve also pointed out what the consequences of not helping Russia will be. Would you share with us your thoughts?”

“Richard Nixon: Well Russia at the present time is at a crossroads. It is often said that the Cold War is all over and the West has won it that’s only half true because what happened is that the Communists have been defeated but the ideas of freedom are now on trial. If they don’t work there will be a reversion to not Communism, which has failed but what I call a new despotism, which would pose a mortal danger to the rest of the world because it would have been infected with the virus of Russian imperialism which of course has been a characteristic of Russian foreign policy for centuries we begin that. Therefore, the West has, the United States has, all those who love peace and freedom in the world have a great stake in freedom succeeding in Russia. If it succeeds it will be an example for others. It will be an example for China to follow for the other Communist states the few that remain. If it fails, then it means that the hardliners in China would get a new light they’ll say it failed there and there is no reason for us to turn to democracy.”

These words would prove true in 2000, as it marked the election and rise of Vladimir Putin, whose promises of stability resonated with many Russians. However, the 2000s witnessed both a decline in authoritarianism and the emergence of methods to overthrow authoritarian regimes, often at the expense of violating international law. One notable example of this violation occurred after the September 11 attacks in 2001 when the United States invaded Afghanistan and overthrew the Taliban regime. Interestingly, during the 1979 Soviet-Afghan war, the Taliban were regarded as "our kind of guys" by the US due to their anti-communist stance. Similarly, in 2003, the US invaded Iraq under Saddam Hussein, who had previously been an important ally during the Iran-Iraq war that began on September 22, 1980. However, hostilities towards Saddam Hussein had grown since the 1991 Gulf War, in which Iraq invaded Kuwait. The invasion of Iraq proved successful, ultimately leading to the hanging of Saddam Hussein in 2006. The invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq resulted in significant loss of human lives and contributed to instability in both countries. For instance, the execution of Saddam Hussein led to the rise of numerous terrorist groups in Iraq, including ISIS.

The late 2000s witnessed the occurrence of the Global Financial Crisis in 2008, which had severe financial impacts on Western countries. This crisis played a significant role in the rise of populism in the West. The failure of democracy to provide stability led many people to gravitate towards radical options known as populists, who espouse populist ideologies. But what exactly is populism? Populism is an ideology that aims to appeal to ordinary people who feel that their concerns are being disregarded by elite groups. From the 2000s to the 2010s, there has been a surge in authoritarian populism, which stands in contrast to the democratic leadership embodied by figures like Nelson Mandela and Vaclav Havel during the 1980s and 1990s. Additionally, this rise of populism has coincided with challenges to globalization and the questioning of the effectiveness of institutions such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and NATO

Image Source: BBC

The 21st century witnessed a decline in democracy and a growing flirtation with populism. For instance, in Hungary, Viktor Orbán and his Fidesz party capitalized on the failures of the liberal government to promote stability, using promises of stability and fervent nationalism to portray themselves as the government of the people. In 2014, Recep Tayyip Erdogan rose to power in Turkey, exhibiting characteristics of a benevolent authoritarian. Erdogan emphasized caring for Palestine, implementing welfare schemes for his people, and promoting economic stability. His Islamism appealed to conservative sections of Turkish society, as Erdogan and his AKP (Justice and Development Party) rejected the secular values established by Turkey's founding father, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, and replaced them with Islamism. Under Erdogan, Turkey sought to become a Muslim leader through foreign interventions in countries like Syria, Libya, Iraq, and Northern Cyprus. Additionally, Turkey had territorial disputes with neighbours like Greece over the Aegean Sea. In 2015, Poland replaced its centre-right government with the far-right Law and Justice Party, which emphasized Christian values. This party contributed to the establishment of LGBTQ-free zones in some parts of Poland, suppressed dissent, and promoted illiberal democracy by eliminating checks and balances. Other examples of religious populist nations include the Islamic Republic of Iran. Since 1979, Iran has implemented a theocratic form of governance, incorporating religion into its governance structure. Iran promotes conservative values in Islam and employs anti-Americanism as a means to distract people from human rights violations within the country, using an external enemy to portray the benevolence of the regime.

However, not all populists are right-wing; there are also left-wing populist governments. These governments focus on improving the lives of marginalized communities, which contrasts with right-wing regimes like Hungary under Viktor Orbán, who prioritize the Hungarian majority over minorities. Venezuela and Bolivia serve as examples of left-wing populist governments. The rise of Hugo Chávez and Evo Morales had both positive and negative outcomes. On the positive side, Chávez and Morales were able to reduce poverty, nationalize their countries' natural resources to benefit their people, increase political participation for all sectors of society, foster economic growth and infrastructure development, and promote an anti-imperialist foreign policy that sought independence from the United States. They sought alliances with like-minded countries such as Cuba, Iran, China, and Russia. Despite their positive achievements, they also faced criticisms for human rights violations and, to some extent, economic mismanagement. In Libya, Muammar Gaddafi ruled from the late 1960s until the early 2010s. Despite heinous human rights violations, Gaddafi implemented beneficial initiatives such as free healthcare, free education, free housing, financial incentives for new mothers, support for farming businesses, and the construction of the largest irrigation canal in Libya. Under Gaddafi, Libya maintained a debt-free status and pursued a foreign policy that emphasized Third-Worldism, similar to Hugo Chávez in Venezuela and Fidel Castro in Cuba. However, Gaddafi was overthrown and killed in 2011 by NATO with the help of Libyan rebels. Following his death, Libya experienced prolonged conflict until 2020, illustrating the notion that some authoritarian leaders can provide stability. In China, the rise of Xi Jinping in 2012 led to significant poverty reduction, increased infrastructure projects, and a focus on expanding China's global influence through initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative, which aimed to facilitate economic development in other countries, contrasting with the warmongering rhetoric often associated with the United States.

The early 2010s marked the beginning of the Arab Spring protests, which originated in Tunisia in December 2010 after the self-immolation of Mohamed Bouazizi and were fuelled by factors such as poor living conditions. The Jasmine Revolution in Tunisia resulted in the overthrow of long-standing President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali. These protests swiftly spread throughout the Middle East, igniting uprisings in other countries. Besides Tunisia, authoritarian regimes were also toppled in Egypt (Hosni Mubarak), Libya (Muammar Gaddafi), and Yemen (Ali Abdullah Saleh).

Simultaneously, the aftermath of the Arab Spring led to the rise of authoritarianism. One example is the impact of the events in Libya on Russia's foreign policy. The downfall of the pro-Russian leader Muammar Gaddafi and the establishment of a pro-Western regime by the rebels prompted Russia to take action against Western interventions in former Soviet Union countries and the Middle East, aiming to advocate for a multipolar world. For instance, after the ousting of the pro-Russian President of Ukraine, Viktor Yanukovych in 2014, Russia granted him asylum and responded by annexing Crimea to secure concessions from Ukraine's pro-Russian factions within the Ukrainian government, thus preventing Western influence.

Additionally, the Arab Spring protests also reached Syria, resulting in violent repression on March 11, 2011, and ultimately sparking a civil war on March 15 of the same year. Fearing a scenario similar to Libya, where the Western, Arab, and Turkish-backed rebels would overthrow the ruling regime of Bashar al-Assad, Russia began providing diplomatic and military support to the Syrian government in 2015, alongside Iran and Hezbollah.

The 2010s also witnessed a decline in democracy in traditional democratic nations such as the United States, France, and the United Kingdom. In the United States, the rise of Trump was fuelled by his appeal to "drain the swamp" through populism, particularly by emphasizing anti-immigration sentiments. Furthermore, Trump contributed to the rise of the "America First" rhetoric by withdrawing the US from significant international cooperation agreements like the Trans-Pacific Partnership and implementing travel bans targeting certain Muslim countries. Trump even aligned himself with other like-minded authoritarian leaders such as President Vladimir Putin of Russia, President Viktor Orbán of Hungary, Supreme Leader Kim Jong Un of North Korea, President Recep Tayyip Erdogan of Turkey, President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi of Egypt, President Andrzej Duda of Poland, and others.

In the United Kingdom, the Brexit rhetoric led to the ascent of Boris Johnson, who appealed to a wider populace by championing anti-globalization sentiments. For instance, Johnson attempted to bypass negotiations by likening the parliament to a bowling game. Both Johnson and Trump's mishandling of the Covid-19 pandemic had severe consequences for their respective countries. In the US, approximately 900,000 people died due to Covid-19 as a result of Trump's refusal to heed scientific advice. In the UK, the death toll reached 227,000.

Following the conclusion of the Trump administration in 2020 and the Johnson government in 2022, the governments led by Joe Biden and Rishi Sunak face challenges in mitigating the repercussions of their policies on their respective countries. Ironically, even in France, the birthplace of the French Revolution that championed the principles of "liberty, equality, and fraternity," there seems to be a manifestation of democratic authoritarianism. This suggests that while France presents itself as a democracy in theory, it tends to adopt authoritarian practices in reality. An example of this is the violent suppression of protests in 2023, which erupted in response to pension reforms implemented by president Emmanuel Macron.

An important consideration is how authoritarian leaders capitalize on Western hypocrisy, using it to justify their own atrocities by highlighting the shortcomings of liberal democracies in achieving their proclaimed ideals both domestically and internationally. For instance, when the West condemned China for alleged human rights violations against the Uyghur population in Xinjiang, China retaliated by referencing crimes committed by the West against Native Americans in the United States, First Nations people in Canada, and Aboriginal people in Australia. Similarly, after Western criticism and sanctions were imposed on Iran following the murder of Mahsa Amini in September 2022, the Iranian government criticized Western hypocrisy by highlighting atrocities committed against indigenous women in Canada, the killings of Palestinians under Israeli occupation, and the challenges faced by women in the West. Unless Western liberal democracies implement the values they advocate within their own societies rather than merely preaching them abroad while neglecting them domestically, authoritarian regimes will continue to exploit the failures of the West in advancing human rights as a justification for their own brutal acts.

In 2022, a positive development for democracy occurred in Brazil with the removal of Jair Bolsonaro's authoritarian rule and the establishment of a centre-left government under Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. Despite facing an uprising by pro-Bolsonaro protesters reminiscent of the Capitol Hill incident following Lula's victory in January 2023, Lula took decisive action against the protesters and those involved in the riots. This demonstrated that authoritarianism can be overcome by uniting all segments of society opposed to the authoritarian government and implementing practical plans aligned with the people's interests. In the event of a similar uprising to the Capitol Hill incident, the most effective approach to dispel the notion of democracy's fragility is to apprehend those complicit in the uprising.

Conclusion

The rise of authoritarianism in the 21st century resembles a rapidly spreading wildfire. The preference for stability over individual freedom among people highlights the need for democracy to effectively address the demands of the population and dispel any perceptions of fragility. Western liberal governments should prioritize promoting democracy within their own nations rather than lecturing other countries on human rights. This approach would prevent authoritarian leaders from presenting their values as successful and exploiting anti-Western sentiment to justify their actions.

To effectively counter the proliferation of authoritarianism, a liberal government must prioritize stability by fostering inclusive economic growth that benefits all segments of society. It should develop targeted policies that incorporate diverse perspectives, recognizing that true freedom of speech entails listening to differing viewpoints, regardless of their sensitivity. Additionally, a liberal government should take decisive action against individuals who exploit democracy for personal gain or engage in criminal activities. Furthermore, promoting and practicing individual rights within the country is crucial for a liberal government to uphold its principles.

These steps will strengthen democracy, enhance citizen satisfaction, and reduce support for radical political parties that often prioritize stability over individual freedoms.

In a world that has witnessed figures such as Adolf Hitler, Hideki Tojo, Benito Mussolini, and Joseph Stalin, it is crucial to aspire to embody the values of leaders like Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. By doing so, leaders can strive to uphold democratic principles, prioritize the well-being of their citizens, and guide their nations towards progress and stability.